Category Archives: Gastro

Cyclical Vomiting Syndrome

Gastro, OPD

A type of functional GI disorder. Thought to be similar to migraine – periodic, sudden onset repeated vomiting, but without headache. Then fine for weeks/months.

Can be severe enough to require admission for IV fluids. Even if not, child can be wiped out for days.

Try hot baths or showers.

NASPGHAN consensus guidelines recommend anti-migraine abortive agents if personal/family history of migraine eg Sumatriptan spray/tabs. Potentially worth trying Ondansetron (melts make sense – 5HT3 receptor antagonist). Neurokinin 1 (NK-1) receptor antagonists have anxiolytic and antidepressant properties eg aprepitant – BNFc has doses for children, and SMC have approved for chemotherapy. Comes as sachets or oral capsules.

The sedating antihistamine Promethazine is helpful in some cases and has a lower wide effect profile than perhaps some other anti-sickness medicines.

Electrolyte solutions rather than just water, ideally containing some sugar for energy. These come in gel, bottle or powdered form.

Adults with this condition often use cannabis!

Preventively, trigger avoidance, “supplements”, various “biobehavioural interventions” described.

Preventive drugs include beta blockers, ondansetron/aprepitant (as above), Amitriptyline or Topiramate.

Patient information at Migraine Trust.

[https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK500018/]

GLP-1 receptor agonists

Endocrinology, Gastro, General paediatrics, Nutrition, OPD

=Glucagon-like peptide receptor agonists eg semaglutide.

Indicated as an adjunct to a reduced-calorie diet and increased physical activity for chronic weight management in adults with an initial BMI ≥30 kg/m² (or ≥27 kg/m² with at least one weight-related comorbidity).

NICE recommends as an adjunct to lifestyle measures only when:

  • it is used for a maximum of 2 years, 
  • within a specialist weight management service, and
  • in patients who have at least 1 weight-related comorbidity and have BMI ≥35 kg/m² (or a BMI between 30 kg/m² to <35 kg/m² who “meet the criteria for referral to specialist weight management services”).

NICE recommends using lower BMI thresholds (eg 2.5 kg/m² less) for people from South Asian, Chinese, other Asian, Middle Eastern, Black African or African-Caribbean family backgrounds.

RCT data showed that patients receiving semaglutide lost an average of 6% to 16% of their total body weight compared with controls, when combined with other behavioural modifications. It has also demonstrated cardiovascular benefits: in adults aged 45 and older who have concurrent cardiovascular disease (but no history of diabetes), semaglutide reduces the overall risk of major cardiac events (heart attack, stroke, or cardiovascular death) by 20% at a mean follow-up of 40 months.

Common adverse effects include explosive diarrhoea, nausea, eggy burps, headache, fatigue, and hypoglycaemia in diabetic patients. Contraindicated in history of thyroid medullary cancer or MEN2.

Liraglutide is similar but was inferior in 1 head to head trial. Daily SC injections.

Tirzepatide is a dual glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide and GLP-1 receptor agonist. Weekly SC injections. RCTs showed weight loss of 18-20%. Similar indications and contra-indications.

Heterotaxy syndromes

Cardiology, Gastro, Genetics, Immunology, Renal, Respiratory

A spectrum of disorders where the normal left-right arrangement of organs in the body is disturbed (“errors of lateralisation”).

Situs inversus is complete mirror image arrangement – there are no health consequences as a result (other than iatrogenic eg delayed diagnosis of appendicitis).

Many genetic causes. Primary cilial dyskinesia (Kartagener syndrome) is one.

Heart – IVC can be interrupted, requiring azygos veins to drain lower body vessels back to heart. Many variations of valves and connections seen. Congenital heart block often seen.

Gut – malrotation, biliary atresia

Asplenia or polysplenia.

Horseshoe or dysplastic kidneys.

Proctalgia

Clinical, Gastro, General paediatrics

=anal pain.

Rule out anal fissure (may be hard to see but bleeding or sentinel pile are clues, typically caused by constipation), thrombosed haemorrhoid, infection.

After that, functional (see Rome criteria)- often triggered by defaecation or sitting.

Classifed as acute (less than 20 mins – “fugax”) or chronic (greater than 20 mins episodes). Latter thought to be due to paradoxical pelvic floor contraction.

Biofeedback has best evidence but consider tricyclic antidepressants, Botox, and sacral nerve stimulation (!).

Variceal bleeding

Emergency medicine, Gastro, General paediatrics

Due to portal hypertension from chronic liver disease.

Potential for large losses – may need local major haemorrhage protocol (FFP, platelets etc) – typically if blood loss >150mls/min, or else 20% blood volume loss in <1 hour (normal blood volume is 80ml/kg).

In adults, they try not to transfuse above 80 – thought that excessive transfusion may increase bleeding.

Terlipressin preferred to octreotide – from age 12. IV injection every 4 hours. No evidence for Tranexamic acid!

NG tube may cause more trauma…

In adults, Glasgow-Blatchford score used. Authors are Oliver and Mary Blatchford (couple?) – he was actually in Paisley at the time…

Eosinophilic oesophagitis

Gastro, General paediatrics

=EOE, but in the US EE.

In Danish study, incidence tripled between 2011 and 2018…

Boys predominate!  Young kids non specific (aversion, FTT, vomiting), older may have pain, food bolus impaction. 

70% atopic. Besides eosinophils histologically (>15/hpf), “cat scratch furrowing”, exudates, strictures on endoscopy (“trachealization”).

High dose omeprazole 2-3mg/kg (max 80mg) in split doses (before scope, 8/52).  Then Budesonide syrup (nebules broken open, mixed with linctus), nil orally for 30 mins after.  Some reports of adrenal insufficiency with this regimen.

Elemental diet? Usually Milk free effective, else 2-6 food elimination (80% effective – milk, egg, wheat, soya, nuts, fish).  4 weeks at a time. Re-introduce 1 food per 2/52.  Use SPT to guide, as often positive even if not aware of type 1 reactions! 

Most experience in infants is with amino acid formulas, not clear if extensively hydrolysed would be ok or not.

Generally symptoms recur at 5-6/7, if they are going to.   Not practical to repeat endoscopy after each food but symptoms can settle without microscopic remission.  Egg allergy can get worse with exclusion so shorter time or ignore?

[Diana Flynn]

The Farm effect in allergy

Allergy, Gastro, General paediatrics, Nutrition

Children growing up on farms are less likely to develop allergies and asthma. Farming has been part of human culture for probably 7000 years.

It is widely accepted now that a symbiotic relationship with a diverse population of microbes in the environment, on the skin, in the gut and in the lung is necessary for a healthy immune system (“microbiome“). These microbes influence the balance between inflammation and immune tolerance. That relationship needs to be developed in early life, and nutrition is a major part.

Big European cross sectional studies – PARSIFAL and GABRIEL. Amish and Hutterites in US are genetically similar but Hutterites use industrial rather than traditional farming techniques (and have 4-6x the rate of hay fever and atopic sensitization).

Prenatal maternal exposure to farm animals is protective against eczema in the first 2 years of life, and against asthma symptoms pre-school.

Farm milk consumption in the first year of life is protective against respiratory allergies. Not clear what it is about it – more whey? Higher levels of cytokines or polyunsaturated fatty acids?

In children, exposure to cows and hay was protective against asthma. Some evidence for pigs, but risk seems to go up for sheep.

Mediators thought to potentially be N-gylcolylneuraminic acid (animals/pets) and arabinogalactan (plants).

Lipopolysaccharide (endotoxin) is widespread in the farm environment. Levels in mattresses inversely associated with hay fever, atopic sensitisation and asthma.

Lack of gut microbial diversity in first month of life predicts school age asthma.

Dietary diversity in first 2 years of life protects against asthma and allergic rhinitis. The link between gut microbes and lung health is thought to be short chain fatty acids, such as acetate and butyrate.

[Ped Allergy and Imm 2022]

In a study of 589 children, 1-year microbiota maturation (based on metagenomics – genetic material of a community of micro-organisms – and metabolomics – metabolites in environment) closely related to eczema, asthma, food allergy and allergic rhinitis at age 5 years. Found a core set of “functional and metabolic imbalances” characterized by compromised mucous integrity, elevated oxidative activity, decreased secondary fermentation, and elevated trace amines. [Hoskinson, BC, Canada – Nature communications . 14(1):4785, 2023 08 29.]

Irritable Bowel Syndrome

Common, Gastro, General paediatrics

Rome IV classification gives definition as:

Recurrent abdominal pain, at least once per week for at least 3 months, associated with at least 2 of:

  • Associated with defecation
  • Change in bowel frequency
  • Change in stool form/appearance

Bloating has been removed from diagnostic criteria as it has no predictive value, being common across all kinds of GI issues.

Subtypes then based on stool form on symptomatic days – predominantly constipation, predominantly diarrhoea, mixed constipation/diarrhoea.

Normal physical examination supports diagnosis. Tests should include FBC to exclude iron deficiency anaemia, CRP for IBD, TTG antibody for coeliac disease.

Management

Trial of lactose, fructose and wheat free diet if suspected link to consumption of these foods (non coeliac gluten sensitivity occurs).

Low FODMAP diet is challenging but can help – should be supervised by dietician.

Reassurance – making diagnosis helps justify not investigating fruitlessly.

[J Clin Med 2017]

Microbiome

Allergy, Gastro, General paediatrics, Immunology

Substantial evidence that alterations in the gut microbiome early in life “imprint” gut mucosal immunity, which is probably important for development of food allergy.

Maternal factors, timing and how solids introduced all likely to be important.

Similarly, the “exposome” is the term for external factors influencing epithelial barrier immune balance – damage, inflammation, colonization, dysbiosis, translocation etc.

Great data from studies of Hutterite vs Amish populations in the US (same origin in Austria) – Amish are more traditional farmers, low technology use, v low atopy rates. See more on the farm effect on allergy here.

Transplacental factors discussed by Patrick Holt (Perth, WA) in 2009 (“soothing signals”).

MV130 is heat inactivated cocktail of bacteria – in RCT (n=120, under 3yrs) 6 months SLIT reduces episodes of recurrent wheeze by 40% in children, also lower duration and symptom scores. [Antonio Nieto, Madrid]

COVID 19 has shown how innate immunity isn’t actually fixed, and can be trained (“trained immunity”) esp BCG, LPS.

Experimental studies have shown that faecal transplants or other attempts to modify bacterial commensals can prevent or treat food allergy as well as asthma.

Mechanisms include restoration of gut immune regulatory checkpoints (eg retinoic orphan receptor gamma T+ regulatory T cells), the epithelial barrier, and healthy immunoglobulin A responses to gut commensals.

[Rima Rachid, JACI 2021]